Indians, according to the non-Indian social philosophers, bureaucrats, and politicians of the previous century, were going to simply disappear. Many history books about Indians stop their stories at the end of the nineteenth century adding to the illusion that Indians somewhat stopped being Indians when the twentieth century was born. The reality of the twentieth century was that Indians didn’t disappear but increased in numbers. Briefly described below are some of the events of a century ago—1922--concerning the Indian nations.
Pueblos
New Mexico’s Senator Holm O. Bursum introduced legislation which would give non-Indians a way to obtain Pueblo land and which would give jurisdiction of Indian waters to the state. The bill proposed that non-Indians be allowed to acquire Pueblo lands without a title deed or proving that they had used the land for ten years: they only needed to state that they had settled the plot in good faith. With regard to water rights, the bill allowed the Pueblos only the water they were currently using and would require them to obtain more water rights under New Mexico’s general water law rather than claiming aboriginal title to it.
Many organizations opposed the bill, including The Federation of Women’s Clubs and the Indian Rights Association. The Pueblo response to the bill can be summarized in the closing to their appeal of the Bursum bill:
“This bill will destroy our common life and will rob us of everything which we hold dear, our lands, our customs, our traditions.”
The Bursum bill was defeated.
Kansa
In Oklahoma, Lucy Tayiah Eads, the adopted daughter of Washunga, was elected principal chief of the Kansa. Eight councilmen were also elected, and the tribe pressed the federal government for money due from the sale of their reservation in Kansas. The tribe also informed the federal government that oil and gas rights were communally owned by the tribe.
Nanicoke
In Delaware, the Nanicoke were given state recognition and began working to renew their tribal traditions. The Nanticoke reorganized as the Nanticoke Indian Association.
Paiute
In southern Utah, the Bureau of Indian Affairs investigated Paiute utilization of the land set aside for them and concluded that the Paiute had either left the area or had been absorbed into the Navajo. While the investigator did not visit the largest area of the reservation and thus had no direct personal observation of Paiute use of the land, the report was accepted by Interior Secretary Albert Fall (infamous for his role in the Teapot Dome scandal) and the Paiute reservation was returned to public domain. The Interior Department under Fall was pursuing a policy of increased mineral exploitation of federal lands.
Shoshone
In Utah, the Salt Lake Tribune noted that Man-a-witze, the only surviving wife of the three wives of Shoshone chief Pocatello, visited Brigham City. She was 112 years old.
Seminole
In Oklahoma, President Warren Harding appointed Alice Brown Davis as chief of the Seminole Tribe in order to facilitate the closing of tribal land matters. In an article in the Chronicles of Oklahoma, Paula Waldowski reports:
“Although she was not the first woman to be chief of an Indian tribe, she was the first woman to head the Seminole Nation.”
Some of the men in the tribe protested her appointment as chief. While appointed rather than being elected, she did gain acceptance by the Seminole people.
She was appointed to resolve a land dispute in which a new survey had shifted several parcels of Seminole land into Creek territory. Paula Waldowski reports:
“Alice refused to sign the deeds transferring them to the Creek Nation or to the federal government, on the grounds that it was morally wrong for her to pass a most valuable tract of land out of the hands of the destitute Seminole people.”
Fort Hall Reservation
In Idaho, the Shoshone and Bannock of the Fort Hall Reservation formed the Fort Hall Stockmen’s Association to encourage better cattle raising. Any tribal member with five or more head of cattle was eligible to join.
Fort Belknap Reservation
In Montana, the Gros Ventre and Assiniboine of the Fort Belknap Reservation prepared tribal roles in preparation for allotment. Rather than using “race” as their model, as desired by the Bureau of Indian Affairs, the tribes attempted to determine membership on the basis of participation in community life. According to anthropologist Loretta Fowler, in her chapter in the Handbook of North American Indians:
“Many persons on the roll as full bloods had considerable white or other Indian ancestry, and persons were listed as full, one-half, or one-fourth Gros Ventre quite arbitrarily.”
Chippewa
In Montana, Chippewa under the leadership of Big Rock leave the Blackfeet Reservation when they had remained since 1909 without their promised allotments. They joined a Chippewa camp at the edge of Great Falls. Indian Office officials reported that 115 Indians were in the camp. This Indian camp became known as Hill 57.
Indians 101
Twice each week—on Tuesdays and Thursdays—this series presents American Indian topics. More twentieth century histories from this series:
Indians 101: American Indian religions 100 years ago, 1922
Indians 101: Tribes and reservations 100 years ago, 1921
Indians 101: The federal government and American Indians 100 years ago, 1921
Indians 101: American Indian art 100 years ago, 1921
Indians 101: The Northwest Coast Potlatch 100 years ago, 1921
Indians 101: Popular culture, stereotypes, crafts 100 years ago, 1920
Indians 101: Hopi Indians as tourist attractions in the early 20th century
Indians 101: Boulder Dam and the Navajo Reservation